Toba Batak
The Toba Batak are the largest subgroup of the Batak, a group of related peoples living in the highlands of northern Sumatra. Partly as a result of the mountainous nature of their territory and their fierce reputation, the Toba Batak remained independent and relatively isolated until the second half of the nineteenth century. Their indigenous religion involved a pantheon organized around the sky god Mula Jadi and the serpentine god of the underworld Naga Pahoha. Today, the Toba Batak are overwhelmingly Christian.
Traditional Culture(1840-1865)Expand All +
Belief
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Supernatural Beings |
| Nature Spirits | Present, and a major focus of supernatural practice (Source) |
| Loeb (1974), pp. 90 | |
| Nature god(s) | Present, and a major focus of supernatural practice (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 65-66 | |
| Ancestral spirits | Present, and a major focus of supernatural practice (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 76-80 | |
| Deified ancestor(s) | Present, and a major focus of supernatural practice (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 67 Lebar (1972), pp. 22 Loeb (1974), pp. 90 |
|
| God(s) | Present, and a major focus of supernatural practice (Source) |
| Sinaga (1981), pp. 18, 68-75, 83-86, 91-92, 96-97, 109-124 Sibeth (1991), pp. 65 |
|
Supernatural Punishment |
| Supernatural punishment for impiety | Present (Source) |
| Loeb (1974), pp. 80, 84 | |
Afterlife and Creation |
| One's actions while living can affect the nature of one's afterlife | Actions while living are one factor in determining the nature of one’s afterlife (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 79 | |
| The actions of others after one has died can affect the nature of one's afterlife | Actions of others after one has died are the principal determinant of the nature of one’s afterlife (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 67, 76 | |
| Myth of humanity’s creation | Present, and creationist (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 65 Sinaga (1981), pp. 95-96 |
|
| Primordial pair | Absent (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 65 Sinaga (1981), pp. 95-96 |
|
| Culture hero(es) | Present, and a major focus of supernatural practice (Source) |
| Sinaga (1981), pp. 24, 132-133, 136 | |
General Features |
| Forces of nature are controlled by or imbued with the supernatural | Present (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 65 | |
Classes of Tapu |
| Kinship tapu | Present (Source) |
| Loeb (1974), pp. 84, 95 | |
| Resource management tapu | Absent (Source) |
| Loeb (1974), pp. 93-96 | |
| Social hierarchy tapu | Present (Source) |
| Loeb (1974), pp. 66, 95 | |
Mana |
| Mana as a personal quality | Absent (Source) |
| Blust (2007) Keesing (1984) Blevins (2008), pp. 262 |
|
| Mana related to social influence or technical skill | Absent (Source) |
| Blust (2007) Keesing (1984) Blevins (2008), pp. 262 |
|
| Mana as a spiritual or religious concept | Absent (Source) |
| Blust (2007) Keesing (1984) Blevins (2008), pp. 262 |
|
Practice
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General Supernatural Practices |
| Headhunting | Absent (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991) Lebar (1972), pp. 20-23 |
|
| Costly sacrifices and offerings | Absent (Source) |
| Loeb (1974), pp. 90-91 | |
| Size of largest ritual social group | Larger than a local community, no larger than the largest political community in the culture (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 39 | |
| Political and religious differentiation | Considerable overlap between religious and political leaders (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 39 | |
Rites |
| Piercing | Absent from culture (Source) |
| Loeb (1974), pp. 25-26 | |
| Genital cutting | Present in the culture as a rite or feature of a rite (Source) |
| Loeb (1974), pp. 68 | |
| Scarification | Absent from culture (Source) |
| Loeb (1974), pp. 25-26 | |
| Tattooing | Present in culture, but not as a rite or feature of a rite (Source) |
| Lebar (1972), pp. 21 | |
| Tooth pulling | Absent from culture (Source) |
| Lebar (1972), pp. 21 Loeb (1974), pp. 67-68 |
|
Social Environment
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| Population | 120000 (Source) |
| Lebar (1972), pp. 20 | |
| Population of largest political community | 100,000 or more (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 39 | |
| Importance of Patrilateral descent | High (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 59 | |
| Importance of Matrilateral descent | Low (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 59 | |
| Polygamy | Limited polygyny (Source) |
| Lebar (1972), pp. 21 | |
| Marital residence | Patrilocal or virilocal - with husband's kin (Source) |
| Lebar (1972), pp. 21 | |
Conflict |
| Conflict within communities | Moderate (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 39-48 | |
| Conflict between communities of the culture | Frequent, occurring at least yearly (Source) |
| Lebar (1972), pp. 22 Sibeth (1991), pp. 47 |
|
| Conflict with other cultures | Rare or never (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 21-25 Lebar (1972), pp. 22 |
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Cultural Isolation
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| Contact with other cultures | Frequent, through trade, warfare, travel, etc. (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 22 | |
| Distance to closest landmass inhabited by a different culture (km) | 0.0 (Source) |
| Ethnologue (Map of Sumatra) (2014) | |
| Distance to African or Asian mainland (km) | 131.8 (Source) |
| Ethnologue (Map of Sumatra) (2014) Daft Logic Distance Calculator (2014) |
|
| Pre-Austronesian population | Present: Clear evidence of human occupation prior to Austronesian settlement (Source) |
| Bellwood (1995), pp. 109 | |
| Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief | Evidence of Hindu / Buddhist influence on supernatural belief. (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 14, 21 Cribb (2000), pp. Map 2.21 Loeb (1974), pp. 77-78 |
|
| Islamic influence on supernatural belief | No evidence of Islamic influence on supernatural belief, but culture is known to have had (Source) |
| Sinaga (1981), pp. 27 | |
| Christian influence on supernatural belief | No evidence of Christian influence on supernatural belief, but culture is known to have had (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 21-23 Sinaga (1981), pp. 27-28 |
|
Subsistence and Economy
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Land-based means of subsistence |
| Animal husbandry as a source of food | Minor (Source) |
| Lebar (1972), pp. 21 | |
| Land-based hunting performed by individuals | Minor (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 34 | |
| Land-based gathering | Medium (Source) |
| Loeb (1974), pp. 25 | |
| Land-based hunting performed by one or more groups | Minor (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 34 | |
| Agriculture / Horticulture | Principal (Source) |
| Lebar (1972), pp. 20 Sibeth (1991), pp. 32 |
|
Water-based means of subsistence |
| Fishing and water-based hunting performed by one or more groups | Medium (Source) |
| Lebar (1972), pp. 21 | |
| Fishing and water-based hunting performed by individuals | Medium (Source) |
| Lebar (1972), pp. 21 | |
| Water-based gathering | Minor (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 31-35 Lebar (1972), pp. 20-21 |
|
Commercial Activity |
| Trade / wage labour as a source of food | Minor (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 34 Lebar (1972), pp. 22 |
|
| Metalworking | Present (Source) |
| Lebar (1972), pp. 21 | |
Physical Environment
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Geographical Range of Culture |
| Number of islands inhabited by culture | One (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 8 | |
Features of Island with Largest Culture Population |
| Latitude | 2.3 (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 8 Google Maps (2014) |
|
| Longitude | 99.0 (Source) |
| Sibeth (1991), pp. 8 Google Maps (2014) |
|
| Island type (island with largest culture population or largest island if unknown) | Continental island (Source) |
| Encyclopaedia Britannica (Sunda Shelf) (2014) | |
| Island Size (km²) | 480793.0 (Source) |
| Encyclopaedia Britannica (Sumatra) (2014) | |
| Maximum elevation (meters) | 3800.0 (Source) |
| Encyclopaedia Britannica (Sumatra) (2014) | |
Post Contact History(1865-2014)Expand All +
Religious History
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Conversion |
| Role of social status in conversion process | Primarily a top-down process, although inroads had already been made with the general population. (Source) |
| Cunningham (1958), pp. 37 Purba (2005), pp. 215 |
|
| Use of force in conversion | Medium (Source) |
| Purba (2005), pp. 215-218 | |
| Resident missionary involvement in conversion process | Present, and from non-Austronesian societies (Source) |
| Purba (2005), pp. 215-216 | |
| Adoption of a world religion | Present and predominant (Source) |
| Rodgers (1993), pp. 41 Purba (2005), pp. 208 |
|
Secular History
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Demographic and Social Changes |
| Foreign government systems | Present, and of high importance (Source) |
| Rodgers (1993), pp. 40 | |
| Immigration | Low (Source) |
| Rodgers (1993), pp. 38 Purba (2005) |
|
| Language shift | Medium (Source) |
| Rodgers (1993), pp. 38 | |
| Foreign education systems | High (Source) |
| Rodgers (1993), pp. 40 | |
Economic Changes |
| Changes in means of subsistence | Medium (Source) |
| Rodgers (1993), pp. 39 Causey (2007), pp. 266-268 |
|
| Exportation of goods to other cultures | Present and substantial (Source) |
| Rodgers (1993), pp. 38 | |
Modern Infrastructure |
| Vehicles and roads | Present and widely used (Source) |
| Rodgers (1993), pp. 39 | |
| Air travel | Absent (Source) |
| Causey (2007), pp. 259 | |
| Sea port | Absent (Source) |
| Causey (2007), pp. 259 | |
Loss of Autonomy |
| Nature of loss of autonomy | Largely involuntary (Source) |
| Rodgers (1993), pp. 39 | |
| Loss of political autonoomy | High (Source) |
| Rodgers (1993), pp. 39, 40 | |
Current Culture(2014)Expand All +
Belief
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Religious Demographics |
| Unofficial religious syncretism | High: (Source) |
| Purba (2005) | |
| Institutional religious syncretism | Medium (Source) |
| Purba (2005), pp. 208-209, 220, 221-233 | |
| Dominant world religion | Christianity (Source) |
| Purba (2005), pp. 208 | |
External Links
References
Bellwood, P. (1995). Austronesian Prehistory in Southeast Asia: Homeland, Expansion and Transformation. P. Bellwood, J.J. Fox, & D. Tryon (Eds.), The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives (pp 113-114). Canberra, Australia: ANU Press.
Blevins, J. (2008). Some Comparative Notes on Proto-Oceanic *Mana: Inside and Outside the Austronesian Family. Oceanic Linguistics, 47 (2), 253-274. Retrieved from http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/ol/summary/v047/47.2.blevins.html
Blust, R. (2007). Proto-Oceanic *Mana Revisited. Oceanic Linguistics, 46(2), 404-423. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20172322
Causey, A. (2007). 'Go Back to the Batak, it's Safe There': Tourism in North Sumatra during Perilous Times. Indonesia and the Malay World, 35 (103), 257-271. DOI: 10.1080/13639810701676383.
Cribb, R. (2000). Historical atlas of Indonesia. Surrey, UK: Curzon Press.
Cunningham, C. E. (1958). The Postwar Migration of the Toba-Bataks of East Sumatra. Southeast Asia Studies, Cultural Report Series. New Haven, CT: Yale University.
Daft Logic Distance Calculator. (2014). http://www.daftlogic.com/projects-google-maps-distance-calculator.htm.
Encyclopaedia Britannica (Sumatra). (2014). In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573120/Sumatra
Encyclopaedia Britannica (Sunda Shelf). (2014). In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573755/Sunda-Shelf
Ethnologue (Map of Sumatra). (2014). Map of Indonesia, Sumatra. Ethnologue. Retrieved from http://www.ethnologue.com/map/ID_sm_
Google Maps (2014). Retrieved from maps.google.com
Hirosue, M. (1994). The Batak Millenarian Response to the Colonial Order. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 25 (2), 331-343. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20071661
Keesing, R. M. (1984). Rethinking "mana". Journal of Anthropological Research, 40(1), 137-156, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3629696.
Lebar, F. (Ed.). (1972). Eastern Sumbanese in Ethnic Groups of Insular Southeast Asia. Volume 1: Indonesia, Andaman Islands, and Madagascar. New Haven, CT: Human Relations Area Files Press.
Loeb, E. M. (1974). Sumatra: Its History and People. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Oxford University Press. (Originally published 1935).
Purba, M. (2005). From Conflict to Reconciliation: The Case of the "Gondang Sabangunan" in the Order of Discipline of the Toba Batak Protestant Church. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 36 (2), 207-233. Retrived from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20072645
Rodgers, S. (1993).Batak’. Encyclopedia of World Cultures (Vol V, pp 38-41). New York, NY: G.K. Hall & Co.
Sibeth, A. (1991). Living with Ancestors: The Batak Peoples of the Island of Sumatra. London, U.K: Thames and Hudson.
Sinaga, A.B. (1981). The Toba Batak High God: Transcendence and Immanence. St Augustin, West Germany: Anthropos Institute.